Online Information system Essay Example for Free

Online Information organization EssayNowadays, technology has r from each oneed its highest level and is in the phase of development more than with the new innovations. Innovations that helps a deal of people to start a more convenient demeanor to do enormous job to be through with(p) in a short period of era. Almost public high crops like Bernardo Lirio story National utmost coach (BLMNHS) are still riding habit their student record by style of victimization file document in a manual manner. The grades of the student are computed and recorded manually which it took eon for the teachers to be done. Especially when a high nurtures population increases annually, the ease of selective information use needs more effort to taken anguish off. The manual saving of files in BLMNHS needs more file cabinets in order to save their school records. There are cases that some files are existence lost and never been find or turn over been misplaced. There are in any case incidents that teachers are having mistakes in writing their student grades and records and they welcome to make a way to re frame the selective information and give them a lot of m and effort.As one of the first web-based of information formation in computer technology in education, Online bookman Information System (OLSIS) is made for educational establishment to manage student data. It is a database controlling student records, information, schedules, subjects, and grades. Information System (IS) helps drug users to become instructive, which means making it easy for them to organize, analyze, search and use old information to hold new ones. As an order, it focuses on exploring the user interface between Information Technology (IT) and figurer Science (CS).Computer Science (CS) focuses on information technology which is a software development. While Information Technology (IT) is involved with the manipulation, storage of data and information, and watchfulness of computer brasss with companies, universities, and new(prenominal) organizations. The developers chose Bernardo Lirio biography National High tame (BLMNHS) as their client because they need technology assistance. Since the populations of the students in BLMNHS are increasing yearly they persistent to make this web grade to facilitate the keeping of records of each student.This project is an online student information placement made for BLMNHS in order to manage their student data that should be handled for their school needs. The dust helps especially those incoming first year students to inquire online. It as well helps the qualification and the school organization in terms of handling of records. They tail end also upload their class and teacher schedules. The students layabout earn their own account wherein they chiffonier location their grades, schedule and activities. Parents can also have an recover of their fry account. The faculty and the school administration can al so have their own accounts for data handling.This online information organization is created for schools that are in need of data handling. This project forget benefit the school in terms of grade record handling for the teachers, irritateible grade records for the student and their parents and other data that the school needed to be handled online. Project Con textual matter The developers unflinching to apply this web information system to BLMNHS because the purpose of the developers is to help them ease their job and to enhance the productiveness of every person involved in school precaution. At present, the school management and its all procedures are done manually.It creates a lot of problems callable to the wrong entries of adding data which causes duplication and redundancy of student record and grade setup. Since their data are stored in file cabinets, searching for data adds a lot of time for them to find it out. The developers proposed this system to maximize and min imize this kind of manual arrangement of data for the users to have a convenient way of handling their data. The system will make for the problem such as mistakes through proper checks and validation control methods in checking of student record, teachers record, grading reports. usance and DescriptionThe proposed system is an online school portal for BLMNHS that will help school teachers in handling their students data. It is a convenient way to get to their data because it can be viewed over the internet. The confidentiality of their files is still maintained through the use of faculty no. and password in order to avoid from intruders. The cover of the proposed system should also maintain for the schools policies in the confidentiality of their school records. The students can also have an access in their school performances, school activities, health record and class schedules, these records can be viewed on their student profile.In this system, the parents have also their account wherein they can monitor their childrens records, like they can view their childrens grade, schedules, health record and their activities in school. The main purpose of the developed system is to give an ease of use in data handling in order to have a more efficient way of adding, deleting and editing of the data that should be managed and maintain. It woul help the client into a convenient way of accessing their data throughout the internet. This would benefit the students and teachers of Bernardo Lirio Memorial National High schooling (BLMNHS), the parents, other public high schools.The users should also have the bedledge of browsing the internet especially the tell website. The developers use a web designing software in order to build an interface and lastalities for the afterlife users of the system. A innkeeper is also utilise to view the created website over the internet. For data handling we use database software that could handle and manage a large amount of d ata. Objectives The main objective of the said project is to develop a web information system that will computerize and organize different modules in Bernardo Lirio Memorial National High School (BLMNHS). Specifically it aims to1. Identify the present student information system use by BLMNHS in terms of 1. 1 facilities and re semens 1. 2 technology enjoyment 2. deliver a let on assistance for the students and faculty of BLMNHS with the following features 2. 1 Submission of grades 2. 2 Viewing of Schedules and Subjects 3. Determine the level of acceptance of the developed web serve among faculty and students of Bernardo Lirio Memorial National High School relative to 3. 1 user interface 3. 2 compatibility functionality in terms of browser 3. 3 table of contents components 4. Perform beta testing on the developed web services.Scope and Limitation The developers would like to improve and build up the web information system for BLMNHS. The study will focus on the transformation of manual Online disciple Information System of BLMNHS. The aim of the project is to concentrate on data handling of records of each student like grades, subjects, schedules, and medical record. Each students parent would also have their own account in which they could access their childs grade records and schedules. Students are not able to edit or manipulate their records at bottom the website, instead, the website administrator are the tho one who can edit this data.Parents should register first their accounts via their childs designated LRN, but they can create their own user remark and password in order to secure their accounts. Faculty could also have their own account wherein they are the ones who record each of their students school performances, in terms of grades and class schedules. They could also upload their files but this data are only seen by their co-faculty members and also by the website administrator. The website administrator accesses all data that the website s hould maintain.It is also responsible for user requests wherever they could have problems in their profile. The entrance examination will not be covered by the study for the reason that the examination should not be taken online out-of-pocket to the possibilities that it may have leakage during the examination. Definition of Terms These terminologies were ga thered by the researcher for better and clearer understanding about the study. It also sets as restoreence for each systems functionalities. Backend. Backend is everything that happens before it gets to your browser. A backend can be very simple or very complicated.1 It is hidden by a user and can only access by the administrator of the system. It is where the data are being stored and operated. Client- horde. It describes the relationship between two computer chopines in which one political program, the client, makes a service request from another program, the server, which fulfills the request It serves as the administrato rs task to manipulate and control the system through peer-to-peer or network. 7 It is a correlation of program that fulfills request and delivers the response, and vice versa that creates a one line lick. Database server.Database server is the term used to refer to the back-end system of a database application using client/server architecture. The back-end, sometimes called a database server, performs tasks such as data analysis, storage, data manipulation, archiving, and other non-user specific tasks. 4 It is a kind of internet service that provides databases for websites it acts as the backend of the system. Data unravel Diagram (DFD). A data point diagram (DFD) shows how data moves through an information system but does not show pogram logic or process steps. 2 It also illustrates the data flow of each function of the system.It also shows on how each data has been neat and the corresponding end users of this system. Domain name. Provides the ability to refer to IP devices usi ng names instead of just numerical IP addresses. Allows machines to resolve these names into their corresponding IP addresses. 2 It also serves as an recognition name for the website. Frontend. It is the part of the web that you can see and interact with. The Frontend usually consists of two parts the design and frontend development. 1 It also serves as the user interface of the system. It is accessed by the user. IP ( earnings Protocol).A packet-switching technology that is deisgned to get packets from point A to B in whatever way is most effective, without the user necessarily having any ability to know what route will be taken. 3 It acts as the address number of each data from a computer that has been sent to another computer. It also sets as identification for each computer in the internet. Text Editor. A text editor is a computer program that lets a user enter, change, store, and usually print text It is a scheduling tool used for editing plain text files. 8 It is used mostly for web scalawag designing and integration.Web host. Hosting (also known as Web site hosting, Web hosting, and Webhosting) is the business of housing, serving, and maintaining files for one or more Web sites. 9 It is a kind of earnings service that allows orgranizations to make their website accessible via World grand Web. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED SYSTEMS In this chapter presents the related studies that have been done over the past years. This includes the foreign studies, local studies and the technical background which includes the software that will be used throughout the process of creating the study. Related SystemsThe Degif developed the system School Management System for KokebeTsebah bet onary School. It has been shown that the system effectively registers students along with enate information, easily retrieves information about a student and generates the required reports such as transcript, report card and timetable. In addition to generating a feasible verify tim etable it produces a timetable for each teacher. Furthermore it has been shown that the web application of the system helps attendance recording by the homeroom teacher and parents can view the status of their children using the Internet or Intranet of the school.Most educators like the systems if they work smoothly and help students learn, according to teachers and teacher-union representatives. Brian Lewis, chief executive of the International Society for Technology in Education, a Eugene, Ore. , master group, says the systems can foster a strong home-school connection and allow busy parents to be involvedand let them step in early if a child is struggling. Bill Erneste, a math teacher for 20 years, says one of the biggest advantages these systems have over paper grade books is that parents and teachers are communicating without even a phone call. At Park Hill High School in Kansas City, Mo. , where he teaches, he likes posting links to instructional materials that students and f amilies can use at home. Plus, teachers say online reporting makes it easier to collaborate and percent information. Other teachers, however, regard posting grades and assignments as an administrative burden, especially for inexperienced educators who often need to spend more time planning lessons and managing their classrooms. rough parents misuse the systems by trying to micromanage their childrens work or overreacting to minor missteps, creating extra work for teachers.Also, problems arise when schools use multiple programs that dont share data, requiring teachers to enter data more than once. 10 The developers found out that there are related systems that exist outside the country so it is a proof that Online Student Information System for Bernardo Lirio Memorial National High School is convenient to use and lastly, it can improve the services of the school to its students. The Student Information system Via-Wapsite was developed to provide a system in wap-based information re trieval system of student.The system has also provided an alternative, efficient and reliable system that provides an easier way to access student information system and verify grades through mobile phones. And also the developers want to provide a system that has a key access and menu-driven interface for students and also for the administrator. 11 On the other study the developers developed the online submission of grades of the faculty to the registrar and the online viewing of students grades. It will diminish the hassles in manner of walking right through the registrar office.The system developed only in authorized persons. 12 The Online Student Information System for F. L Vargas College Tuguegarao City cited that maintaining students records manually is a very difficult task and time consuming. The said school are still using filling cabinet to store their files, there are some incident that some of the files are lost. 13 The Student Information System of Southgate Institute of Malvar is specifically about the arrangement of different modules into one altogether school system.One of the objectives of this study is to remove the deficiencies of current system and build up new computerized system, it shall be faster and will able to produce results of various(a) queries. 14 The developers found out that the system has its potential to provide longer conveniences and accessibility to the students since student can access information despite of their location and time at their convenience. All these systems are related in the sense that systems aimed to lessen the problems encountered by the students, faculty and other respondent during enrollment and school days.The preceding check over shows the transition from a manual system into a computerized system. As similar applications for the enlistment process have not been applyed yet in Bernardo Lirio Memorial National High School the results of this study may provide additional information on the subjec t and may become an effective tool to coerce the computerization of many transactions done in school. The study shows that the proposed system is feasible and had a chance to be implemented. The proposed system was developed and concentrated only in high school.The difference of the proposed system from other system that has been done is that it is made exclusively for a certain High School. Nowadays the existing school online websites services are made only for tertiary levels. The developers want to bring the benefits of technology to high schools in which students can have their own accounts and also for their parents. Teachers, administration and staff have their own accounts also for their school monitoring activities, updates and grade records. The system is comprised of a newer networking technology technique, thus a faster and real time online student information system.Technical Background In building a website there are different softwares that can be used in which it sho uld includes programming language, database and server. Here are the programs that are used in order to build the Online Student Information System of Bernardo Lirio Memorial National High School. The PHP Hypertext Preprocessor allows web developers to create dynamic content that interacts with databases. (Mike Chapple, 2008). The proponent used this language for the ease of making website. The language was one of the most recommended in terms of making websites.PHP is also great for creating database-driven Web sites. Most web hosting providers support PHP for use by their clients. It is originally designed to create dynamic web pages. PHP is very fast and lightweight. MySQL It is an open source RDBMS package for back end tool for managing the database as this allows users to manage the database very efficiently and controls data redundancy and inconsistency. It allows enforcing various data integrity constraints on the data being entered into the tables. Database can be accessed u sing GUI provided by the system (Angela Bradley, 2006). MySQL serve as the database of the system.The proponents believe that MySQL was the most reliable to managing database because most of the web developer used it. Database can be accessed using GUI provided by the system. MySQL helps the proponents to accumulate the appropriate records in the database. It helps to handle the whole data and information in the certain school. Apache Server is a web server software program notable for playing a key role in the initial growth of the World Wide Web. Apache was the first viable alternative to the Netscape Communications Corporation web server (currently named Oracle iPlanet Web Server).Typically Apache is run on a Unix-like operating system, and was developed for use on Linux. Apache is developed and maintained by an open community of developers under the auspices of the Apache Software Foundation. The application is available for a wide pastiche of operating systems, including UNIX, FreeBSD, Linux, Solaris, Novell NetWare, OS X, Microsoft Windows, OS/2, TPF, and ComStation. Released under the Apache License, Apache is open-source software. (Robert McCool, February 2013) Apache Server was the most popular server software on the Web so that the researcher decided to use this server.This server serves as the temporary server for our websites. It enables a computer to host one or more websites that can be accessed over the Internet using a Web browser. It supports PHP so the developers use this as server. Apache is popular when it comes in Web Hosting because it is open source and free to use. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND methodological analysis This chapter presents the methodological study for creating the proposed system. It includes the methodologies, requirement specification, user interfaces, software interfaces, performance requirements, system overview, and system architecture.System Analysis and Design The Online Student Information system of Bernardo Lirio Mem orial National High School access the student and faculty school information. It also improves the users accessibility in their information, and convenience in data handling and manipulation. System Design The following diagrams are the system design followed by the developers in order to achieve the necessary data that should be processed on the system. emblem 1 shows the general flow of the data accommodated at heart the system.It is compose of four entities wherein it sets as the user of the system, in each entity there are several operations that should be undergone. These processes are the functions of the system to imply on the essential operation of the system. Figure 1. Context Flow Diagram Figure 2 shows the registration process of a user to the IS wherein the system admin generates the newly registered users to its database. The users can have their own account. Figure 2. DFD of User Registration Figure 3 illustrates the data flow diagram of the grading system of BLMNHS that can handled by the system.The grades of the student to be computed by their teachers are from their assignments and their examinations. The grade that has been computed can be view by the students profile and also to their parents profile. Figure 3. DFD of Grading System Figure 4 shows the data flow on handling the students health record. The BLMNHSs P. E. teacher is the one who is in charge of handling the health record of the students. Figure 4. DFD of Student Health Record Figure 5 shows the flow of submitting of schedule. The admin will submit the schedules in both teachers and student.And the teachers and students can view their schedules on the web, the same with the parents they can view the schedule of their children. Figure 5. DFD of Schedule System Implementation The Online Student Information System for BLMNHS was deployed over the web through a web server. The systems main feature was implemented only for BLMNHS student, parents and faculty. The developers used web hosting for their system to be accessed via online by the students. The administrator is the one who maintain and update the system. The users of the site should have internet access in order to explore the said system.Project Concepts To meet the needs of the proponents in data handling specially the developers sets an objective in order to achieve a goal in creating the system. Figure 10 shows the Homepage of the Web Page. The users can see the Announcements, history, and admission policies of the school. Figure 10. Homepage Figure 11 shows the login page in order to have security on their profiles. Their students Information should be confidential and to avoid from intruders. For newly registered users they have to fill up some important details to fulfill the information that are needed by the school.The information that entered by the users can remain confidential generated by the system administrator. Figure 11. Log in Page Figure 12 shows the Students profile wherein they ca n view their grade record, Class schedule, school activities uploaded by their teachers they can also submit their assignment. Their health record and status can also view on their profile. This data are manipulated by their P. E. teachers who are in charge in their health maintainability. The student account record can be view by the system. Figure 12. Student ProfileFigure 13 shows the teachers profile that has the authority to view their student profile. They are also the one who upload schedules, school activities, student grades and class standings. Teachers can also compute their students grade on the website and sent it throughout the designated profile. Figure 13. Teachers Profile Figure 14 shows the Parents portal that have an access to their childs class standing, grades, schedule, and health record. They can view the school activies of the school of their child. They can also send a message to the system admin. Figure 14. Parents PortalFigure 15 shows Rapid Application r amp upment (RAD) whereby, it is use mostly by information systems and website to describe the process of building the system. The first phase is to define the problems of the school that we are using for our study. The developers also identify the possible solutions for the problem and how to help them in the most convenient way of data handling. The second phase is Analyze wherein the developers analyze the software to be use to create the system. The developers will also analyze the flow of the system throughout the operation of the system.The next phase is Design developers will now formulate design for the data flow of the system and also the design of the user interface that the user will view on the proposed system. This will help the users to easily understand and explore the system on the rest of the system operation. Develop is the fourth phase to follow by the developers, here the systems design, operation and processes are being develop in order to improve the systems per formance. Here the user interface of the system and the functions should be developed to have a more efficient system to be use.It will also identify the possible risk that system will undergo. The next phase is to test the system if it is functional and can be used by the actual users. It will also test the website if it is effective and the other functions are usable. The last phase is support, as the system has been test and has no possible malfunction that has been set it is now ready for the users to use throughout the net. The maintainability of the system should be operated in order to have a well created system. It will limit the system future risk within the operation. Development ModelFigure 15. Rapid Application Development Development Approach The developers are referring to use the top-down advancement. In this approach the developers has the overview of the system wherein it focuses on the formulation of the system. Top-down approach breaks down some parts of the sys tem into categories which is essential for the developers. The IS are consisting of different divisions on different function that will be used by the users of the system. Each division should be identified to know the functionalities of each system for the appropriate users. Software Development ToolsThe developer prefered using open source software tools, since it is more accessible and free than using proprietary softwares. For front end software tools, we use html and css for the website interfaces. For the special website functionalities we use javascript. In order to code these softwares we use a text editor for the entire coding operation of the system. For the backend of the system, we use PHP for website conditions and also functionalities, in order to implement database within the website we use MySql. At first the developers worked offline in order to test thewebsites effectivity with the use of XAMPP. For the live implementation of the website, the developers prefer to b uy soil name, web host, and the database server. For the users who can access the website faster than using free web hosting sites that might commits problems in accessing the website. The developers also use Filezilla to import the files and links that has been use for the website within the net. Project Teams and their Responsibilities Each team members actively participated in every task all throughout with their own responsibilities in developing a web system.Some specified partitions of project task are as follows Irish Opena is responsible in designing and development of the project. Angelica Montero is responsible for congregation of information, data and other related facts that would help in the development of the study. Lester Cueva is responsible for organizing group meetings, places, times, dates, communication requirements, etc Budget Cost Management Plan Table 9 shows the expense that has been used for the system. These are suggested to be bought in order to have an e asier and accessible website for the user.Domain name is an identification string for the website so that it would be easier to be search by the web. Web host is a web service wherein it helps the website to be accessed by the users. Database server is a computer program that provides database services for the website that allows handling the data within the web. These preferences are bought to make a website implemented throughout the World Wide Web. Table 9 Budget Cost Verification, Validation and Testing Plans The system will test its functionalities with the use of server to test if it is actually works throughout the internet.As this test has been done, it will now evaluated by the faculty, parents and students of Bernardo Lirio Memorial National High school. Questionnaire. Preparation and construction of the questionnaire were done by reviewing concepts related from books, journals, theses and electronic resources. The responses provided by the respondents were given weights o f 0 to 5 with 0 as lowest to 5 as highest rate. Corresponding verbal descriptions were also proided in different areas. The following scale was used to interpret and analyse the results RateVerbal Interpretations 5 Exemplary 4Good 3Satisfactory 2 Needs cash advance 1 Poor0 Unaacceptable/Absent, N/A A issue forth of (40) respondent evaluated the system having number (5) as the highest possible rating and number (0) as the lowest. The scale used has the corresponding values such as 5 for exemplary, 4 for good, 3 for satisfactory, 2 for needs improvement, 1 for poor and 0 for unacceptable. The total points of the evaluation has corresponding verbal equivalent rating the systems performace for the user. The respondents in the conducted survey were the faculty and students in Bernardo Lirio Memorial National High School (BLMNHS) and parents for they are the target user of the proposed system.In testing the system, the proponents used the content testing which involves checking of the h uman-interface of the web. In our system we check errors in font founts, screen layout, colors, bright resolutions and other features that may affect the end-user experience. Next is the white- box testing which is said to be very applicable in testing web architecture web. This type of testing is used to find navigational and structural structures in the system. Lastly, testing the end-user environment or the browser compatibility testing web 3 (Glenford J. Myres, Art of Software Testing.Second Edition. John Wiley Sons Inc, New Jersey, 2004). In this part of testing, the proponents focused in configuring the compatibility of the browser, operating system, and the programming language used in the system. Table 10 presents respondents profile based on gender where in female got the highest frequency of 24 and having a persona of 56% while male having a percentage of 44% and got the lowest frequency of 16. Table 10 Respondents Profile in terms of Gender Gender Frequency Percentage Male 16 44% Female 24 56% Total 40 100% CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThis chapter will discuss the result and analysis of the development and testing of the program in tabulated format. Screenshots of the system are also included in this chapter. Observation 1. The proponents have collected the desirable information from Bernardo Lirio Memorial National High School (BLMNHS) which was used in developing the system suited in the need of the said school. The proponents noticed that the school had a problem in their record management method. They manually handled the files and information they have and sometimes they are having hard time in accessing it.Figure 16 shows the homepage of the website. It is divided into 4 major portals, the Student, Parent, Faculty, and Admin. Figure 16. Homepage To solve the problem, the proponents had designed and developed the system that can be used to manage and record the information of the students. Hereby, the developers identify the present st udent information system used by Bernardo Lirio Memorial National High School in terms of 1. 1 facilities and resources As the system has been tested and evaluated the developers observed that the facility of staff should be increased in order to better serve the student population.It also decreases the time required to access and deliver student records. 1. 2 technology utilization By means of the new technology, the said institution offers more convenient transactions contrasting in their manual system beforehand. 2. Provide a better service for the students and faculty of BLMNHS with the following features 2. 1 Submission of grades Submission of grades is more convenient than the manual system of grades. Figure 17 the subject to be graded. The faculty can choose the subject that they would like to upload the grade of their students. As they choose their designated subjects they can now search their students name a

Assess the Significance of Developments in Policing Essay Example for Free

Assess the Signifi do-nothingce of Developments in Policing EssayThere were many significant suppurations in policing which aided the rough-and-readyness of jurisprudence enforcement in Britain from the detail of 1830 to 1965. Reasons as to why schoolings were necessary in this period firstly between the years 1829 1850 there was a steady increase in crime1. Secondly as time progressed criminals came up with ways to beat the policing system, therefore it was necessary for policing in Britain to develop, in crop to keep on top of crime. Development factors much(prenominal) as the establishment of the Metropolitan Police Force, passing of key legislation were key instructions in policing which influenced law and piece. Other developments such(prenominal) as the reformation of prison houses and developments in technology, bring together with roles of individuals such as Elizabeth Fry and high profile cases like that of Oscar Wilde, also contributed to the effectiveness o f law enforcement in the 19th and twentieth one C.The first significant development in British policing, which notably advocated effective law enforcement was the establishment of the Metropolitan Police Force in 1830. This was a significantly fundamental advancement in law enforcement as it was the first time in British history that an organised policing force was introduced and it updated the predated system of watchmen and bow street runners. thus far, the force was met with varying attitudes from the public, a great deal of which was sensationalised by the media2. Other major Acts were implemented to support the Metropolitan legal philosophy, especially forces outside of London, for example the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. This was a significant development as it nationalised the police force therefore allowing effective law enforcement to take place by means ofout the country, unlike before where it was restricted to London3. However the effectiveness of these developme nts can be questioned, as police officers were often criticised for being drunks and bullies4, therefore they were mistrusted by the oecumenic public.There were further attempts to nationalise the police force, such as the Rural jurisprudence Act 1839. This was a significant development in lawenforcement as the legislation focused nationalising policing in rural areas. On the other hand, the enforcement of the Act was optional5 consequently limiting its effectiveness, as many boroughs were apprehensive of its creation. Nevertheless further legislation was pioneered in the form of the County and Borough Police Act of 1856, which saw every county having to acquire a professional police force6. The government encouraged the development and gave incentives such as paying for clothing and wage to efficient police forces7. Officers therefore, would have felt a sense of duty to their jobs accurately as they had respectable positions.Additional legislation allowed the policing forces of Britain to develop into further branches, such as the establishment of the C.I.D in 1877 which investigated homicides. This development was opposite as it loosened pressure on the Metropolitan police force and allowed a select force to focus on a case. However, the birth of the C.I.D incurred with the sod Fraud Scandal, thus leaving the public suspicious and distrustful of the establishment. The C.I.Ds first major test came in the form of the Jack the Ripper slipperiness in 18888, which instillight-emitting diode fear throughout the nation. Conversely the case was significant in another light, as police performance was repeatedly criticised for its incapability and slow work.Other cases such as The Arrest of Scotland Yard9, did not help the detective forces as they were again shown as an inefficient and corruptive detectives. The development of the C.I.D also brought about the development of the spare Irish Branch in 1884, both which showed their significance as they foiled the assassination attempt of sissy Victoria at her Golden Jubilee in 188710. This was a significant case as it showed the public that both, the C.I.D and the Special Branch were effective developments of law and order as cooperative work between forces ensured the protection of the Queen and thus the nation.It is apparent that other factors contributed in influencing effective law and order and not only developments in policing, for instance the reformation of prisons. Prisons in the 18th century have been criticised for their poor sanitation, poor food and living conditions. It was remarked that felons in Britain lived worse than dogs or swine11. Humanitarian Elizabeth Fry campaigned for the separation of women and children from maleprisoners, especially after she witnessed the frightful conditions in prisons12. Her work was promoted throughout the House of Commons and with the support of Sir Robert Peel they introduced a series of prison reform including the Gaols Act 1823. This sho wed the strong public thought process on issues regarding law and order, especially as intervention of influential individuals was patent.By 1840 the government had recognised that prisons needed to be modernised, such as the Pentonville prison in 1842. Developments such as these meant that wardens could control prisons better and new regimes could be exercised, such as the separate system, where inmates were kept in solitary confinement from the beginning of their sentence. This development aided effective law and order as there were reported cases of reformed criminals, however the system sent many insane or led them to suicide, questioning the regime and the governments handling on the treatment of criminals. Furthermore, prisons had been nationalised in 187713, this coupled with the harsh regimes led to a steady fall in crime14, proving the effectiveness of this development on law and order. Further legislation such as the Prison Act 1898, reasserted the idea of reformation as the main role in prison regimes. This led to a dilution of the separate system, the abolition of hard labour, and established the idea that prison labour should be productive.The argument of the reformation of prisons brought attention to young offenders. passage itself had ended in 1852, as reformists viewed it as a lenient punishment, however under the Reformation School Acts (1854) courts were allowed to send children for transportation15 setting double standards within society, whilst historians palisade that there were little, if any boundaries between children and adults16. The Childrens Act of 1908, established juvenile courts17 and also banned prison sentences to those less than 14 years of age.This was significant in influencing effective law enforcement, as children were seen with sympathy and compassion. The legislation also showed that boundaries were being set for adults and children. During this period there was a general feeling that children were committing crime due(p) to inadequate discipline and education at home, thus the Borstal System was introduced18. The main elements in the borstal programs included education, regular work, vocational training, and groupcounselling, however the Borstal System turn up to be ineffective as 75% of inmates still re-offended19 .Further developments came into fruition in the form of technology, which greatly influenced effective law and order. It has been argued that were being increasingly caught20, for instance, advancements through the development of finger printing in 190121. The development aimed to prevent criminals from concealing previous convictions. This development contributed to effective law and order as a database of criminals was created which the police could use as a reference for repeat offenders.Other tools which helped the police force included Radio telegraphy and the use of the 999 system in 1910. These developments influenced effective law and order as the police was able to commu nicate better with not only one another, but also with those in need of help. However the effect of the modernisation of the police force meant that there was increasing reliance on electronical and technological methods, thus alienating the average police man from his community22.It can be argued that the use of media had also affected the influence the effectiveness of law and order as public opinion had been influenced through the use of various Medias. The Oscar Wilde elusion of 189523, exemplified how societies stereotypical immoralities i.e. homosexuality, could be used against someone in a court of law and order and convict them as a criminal. Other cases, for instance the Derek Bentley Case of 195224, showed further miscarriage of justice, as the wrong person was hung. This case was significant in influencing law and order as the media attention helped increase societies widespread distrust in the justice system. An added incentive that motivated the publics change of atti tude towards peachy punishment and the miscarriage of justice was the Ruth Ellis Case of 195525.It was evident from this case, that Ellis was did not receive the correct legal representation in court and the case was not thoroughly investigated. It was found out after the trial Ellis was a victim of domestic violence, which could have been the cause for her crime of passion. These high profile cases strengthened the publics resolve on the issue of the barbarity of capital punishment and the ever present fact that there wasno reprieve for those who were convicted and hung. This led to the profoundly significant changes in legislation which influenced effective law and order the Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act of 196526. This was paramount in policing legislation as the death penalty was abolished. The abolition was a significant change in the 20th century as capital punishment was seen with much aversion both from the public and judges alike, who were especially reluctant to hand out death penalties.In conclusion developments within policing which significantly influenced effective law and order in the period 1830-1965 were vast and all had varying impact on society. Legislation such as the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 and the Rural Constabulary Act of 1839, ensured society was protected by an organised, efficient national police force. However officers were distrusted by the general public, therefore they had many hurdles to face before having a significant impact on society.However one cannot base the effectiveness of law and order within this period solely on developments in policing, as there were other contributory factors. For example reformation of prisons through work of individuals such as Elizabeth Fry, the establishment of the C.I.D, technological developments such as finger printing and DNA sampling and high profile cases like that of Oscar Wilde. These developments greatly advanced effective law and order, as one can base the suggest ion of decreasing crime rate during 1830-196527 on these as well as the developments in policing.BibliographyBooksTrend of horror 1750 1900 Ian DawsonCrime and penalty A Study Across Time Roger Whiting 1968D.Taylor. Crime, Policing, Punishment in England 1750-1914The Victorian Underworld, Donald Thomas 1998Police and Prisons P. F. Speed 1970Crime and Punishment through time, John MurrayHistory of Police in England and Wales T. Crithchley 1978Websiteswww.historyhome.co.ukwww.learnhistory.org.ukwww.parliament.uk/www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_and_Borough_Police_Act_1856www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_the_RipperInvestigationwww.suite101.com/content/the-jubilee-plot-to-kill-queen-victoria-a290563www.howardleague.org/index.php?id=elizabethfrywww.howardleague.org/history-of-prison-system/www.crimezzz.net/forensic_history/index.htmwww.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_wildewww.innocent.org.uk/cases/derekbentley/index.htmlwww.stephwn-stratford.co.uk/ruth_ellis.htmwww.legislation.gov.uk/uk pga/1965/71/enacted

Spatial Patterns Of Tropical And Temperate Deforestation Environmental Sciences Essay

Spatial Patterns Of Tropical And Temperate De timberation Environmental Sciences EssayGlobal dis qualityation has become a study c at one timern of homosexual society. be to the last untouched and pristine terrestrial ecosystems on earth, tropical qualitys in finicky be a central issue of m any conservation movements. Safeguarding world-wide biological diversity has been widely approved as a political goal throughout the global community with woodwindss playing a major role. commodious and r atomic number 18 animals and pictures of burned lumbers prepare strengthened the belief in the moral and ethic injustice currently taking place in the tropics. Yet, we have to redress that this point of view take ups in westward society and mainly remains widely accepted in the developed world where for the most part no tropical woodss exist. In contrast to the (partly) intact and less degraded forest ecosystems of the tropics, in the highly developed countries of the northern hemisphere freehanded parts of equable forest ecosystems have foresightful vanished and been replaced by anthropogenic estatescapes. This change in land determination has resulted in the creation of severely transformed ecosystems fundamental for the economical and social tuition. These include, for instance, unsophisticated, pastoral, industrial and urban landscapes. The long time that has passed since their clearance often leaves clement forests out of the current investigation on deforestation patterns. Rather, scientists concentrate on patterns of tropical deforestation, which is currently the most alarming regarding the net loss of forest cover.Gener onlyy, land degradation occurs to a great finis in forested areas since about 25% of total land degradation is associated with broad-leaved forests and 17% with boreal forests (UNEP 2007). With the severity of the consequences of global deforestation becoming evident, environmental and economic science is more and more addressing the issue. Just tardily, beginning in the late 1980s, environmental economists have been publishing new thoughts on valuing the environment and considering its ecological functions in economic decision-making (see de Groot 1987, 1992 Daily 1997 Costanza et al. 1997 among others). Nowadays, the interdependence and importance of forest ecosystem functions and services is widely accepted throughout scientific and economic literature. This development has raised the general awareness of the importance of fountainhead mathematical bear upon and sustainably managed forests and has augmented the acceptance of forest conservation movements (at least in western societies). Supported by new technologies, such as satellite imagery and removed sensing methods, the study of deforestation processes and spatial patterns of deforestation has been assistd at unlike levels and different scales at affordable costs. By using new technologies and approaches, many studies have been conducted in an attempt to estimate the extent of deforestation and to explain its ca utilises. A great amount of studies focuses on the processes of tropical deforestation which is doubtlessly most alarming at the moment. However, other studies have approached deforestation from a global perspective and alike for temperate forest ecosystems in particular.In light of the ongoing debates on deforestation, this theme first defines forest degradation and deforestation and then explores potential mis apprehensions of such comments. This discussion is followed by an analysis of the causes of global deforestation process and closes with some get a line findings for tropical as well as temperate deforestation patterns.2 Defining forest degradation and deforestationDrawing on the unexclusiveation by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2009), the following section will all of a suddenly present the debate on the definition of forest degradation and deforestation in a global context. As the number of studies and policy instruments concerning forest degradation and deforestation are numerous it is necessary to establish a common manner of speaking in order to draw mutual conclusions and to find applicable solutions.Being a serious environmental, social and economic problem, forest degradation and deforestation are issues of major concern discussed at various political levels as well as by the public. As consequences of deforestation become evident not merely on the local anaesthetic nevertheless also on the global scale, finding consensus among different parties is of great importance for responding ablely to a daunting challenge. The definition of forest degradation and deforestation, however, is technically and scientifically catchy to define because it is viewed and perceived differently by various stakeholders who might have different objectives regarding forest use or conversion. Furthermore, discrepancies in the definition basin have implica tions on forest related policy making processes as well as on the monitoring and enforcement of policies (FAO 2009). The FAO name argues that forest-related definitions which are outcomes of international processes are policy tools and can have major economic, social and environmental implications (FAO 2009, p. 8). Besides monitoring purposes, forest-related definitions also determine financial flows and the apportionment of financial incentives for various purposes (e.g. restoration or improvement measures, projects under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) or the Reducing Emissions from deforestation and Degradation (REDD) program) (FAO 2009).2.1 DeforestationDeforestation describes the process of land use change from forest to non-forest (FAO 2009). However, this quite simple definition based on certain thresholds of deforestation has the potential to cause conflicts when the psyche factors are evaluated. Different nations, international organizations or ethnic groups migh t have differing perceptions and definitions of forest or non-forest. Drawing on the definition provided by the FAO, forests are specify as land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than five meters and a canopy cover of more than ten percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ (FAO 2005, p. 16). This definition does not include land that is predominately under agricultural or urban use (FAO 2004). Furthermore, deforestation can occur on different spatial and profane scales which will be discussed later in the following section.2.2 wood degradationWhile deforestation is relatively easy to define, much more effort is needful to define forest degradation. In 2002, a symposium of international forestry-related organizations consisting of the FAO, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), the International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) and the United Nations Environment Pro gram (UNEP) agreed on a common definition of forest degradation, defining it as the reducing of the subject matter of a forest to provide goods and services (FAO 2009a, p. 9). This process occurs within the forest and negatively affects the characteristics of the forest, which can be of structural or functional nature and which determine the capacity to provide goods and services. Defining the latter two terms well is a challenging and demanding task. The definition can be comprehensible for one party but could be understood real differently or be misunderstood. For instance, with regard to the REDD mechanism, forest degradation considers particularly the reduction in atomic number 6 stocks within a forest (FAO 2009b). However, there is still a lack of practically applicable approaches to measure the extent of forest degradation because the existing definition is not an direct(a) formulation due to different perceptions of what forest degradation furthermore entails (FAO 2009). Therefore, the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) has called for greater harmonization of internationally applicable definitions related to forests to facilitate monitoring and reporting on progress towards the achievement of the global objectives on forests and sustainable forest management (FAO 2009, p. 8).3 Processes of deforestationAs described above, deforestation is a process of change in land use. Although it is currently being addressed widely at different political levels as well as by the public, it is not a new phenomenon. Since homokind began to control fire and to domesticate animals, forests needed to be cleared for various purposes. However, among great parts of western society forests nowadays are being valued very differently than even a hundred years ago. Scientific progress, environmental awareness, technical innovations and thoughtful policies have made clear that deforestation has become an strategic and global issue. The following section in short depict s the process of deforestation after which the underlying causes for this development and typical observable spatial patterns of deforestation will be presented.In general, it can be distinguished between natural and anthropogenic disturbance processes. indwelling interferences occur course in the environment, in contrast to anthropogenic interferences which are human induced. While natural stresses occur rather on a atomic to medium scale and are of relatively short term, anthropogenic disturbances often occur on a medium to large scale and are long term processes. The former include forest clearances by natural wildfires, wind (storms), extreme weather events or changing climatical conditions (though being argued to be human induced). The latter includes timber extraction, pastoral uses, small shifting cultivation plots, induced forest fires and large scale forest conversion activities. Anthropogenic disturbances can every be intentional (direct), e.g. logging or land conversio n, or unintentional (indirect), e.g. introduction of invasive species (FAO 2009). However, forest disturbance regimes become less predictable once natural and anthropogenic factors combine (FAO 2009). The two factors are often dependent on each other and combinations can be complex and take various forms. For instance, anthropogenic impacts on forest structure and dynamics in tropical mountain regions can have severe consequences for downstream areas during naturally occurring storm events in the form of floods and landslides. Further, human impacts influence the vulnerability of forests to degradation from natural causes, can negatively affect the successional regeneration process in naturally disturbed forests, and naturally occurring drought periods can be the cause for large scale forest fires ignited by escaped land clearing fires (Goldammer 1992). Moreover, global ecological feedback mechanisms can have far reaching impacts on anthropogenic forest interferences (Goldammer 1992 ) this will be addressed later in the paper.Usually, forest degradation is associated with a reduction of the vegetative cover (Lund 2009 in FAO 2009). Considering forest degradation as a continuous internal process caused either by natural or human induced disturbances, various thresholds can be defined, for example, in terms of percentage of canopy cover. Thus, when passing a certain threshold, a forest can be classified into various levels of degradation and eventually, when reaching a high level of openness, the forest cannot longer be defined as a forest (i.e. 10% canopy cover), although administratively it still might be considered forest land (FAO 2009).Deforestation can occur abruptly in a very short period of time by simply removing the lands tree cover. Under those circumstances, the forest is usually cleared for the purpose of land conversion for other forms of land use or for the substitution by monoculture plantations of exotic tree species. This form of deforestation, if sufficiently large, is easily detectable by remote sensing (FAO 2009).However, deforestation can also occur over a longer period of a subsequent forest degradation process caused by disturbances which vary in terms of severity, quality, origin, extent and frequency. The impacts occur on varying spatial and temporal scales and are dependent on the emblem and specific characteristics of the forest (FAO 2009). Its detection and measurement is relatively difficult as it implies a long-term loss of biomass, productivity or species composition that is difficult to assess, especially the impacts on soils, water, nutrients, biodiversity and the landscape. (FAO 2009, p. 13). Yet, forest degradation is not inevitably a prerequisite for deforestation. Forests can also exist as degraded forests for a long period of time without reaching the level of deforestation (Angelsen et al. 2008).4 Causes for deforestationVarious direct and indirect causes for tropical deforestation exist (Geist and L ambin 2002). Drawing on an earlier publication by the two authors (2001), the results are based on the analysis and interpretation of 152 subnational case studies within the tropics.Direct or proximate causes are human activities or immediate actions at the local level that originate from intended land use and directly impact forest cover (Geist and Lambin 2002, p. 143). Indirect causes or underlying driving forces are fundamental social processes that hold up the proximate causes and either operate at the local level or have an indirect impact from the national or global level (p. 143). In other words, direct causes for deforestation are the actual physical impacts on forest cover that degrade the forest or convert it to other forms of land use. Indirect causes, on the other side, are institutional arrangements or socio-demographic forces which facilitate the existence and emergence of the direct causes.At the proximate level, the results clearly show that deforestation in the absolute majority of cases is caused by multi-factorial terms, that is, a combination of direct causes rather than by a single variable. The four single causes are (decreasing in relevance) agricultural elaborateness, infrastructure extension, wood extraction and other factors (land characteristics, biophysical drivers and social trigger events). The most frequent combination of direct causes is the agricultural wood extraction infrastructure expansion combination that ultimately leads to deforestation (3-factor term of causation) (Geist and Lambin 2001). However, it is questionable to just project this result to the entire tropical forest biome. Each individualistic case of (small to large scale) deforestation can have a distinct history of the cause or need to change the land use form and might statistically not be represented in the current literature.Likewise, at the underlying, institutional level tropical deforestation is associated with synergetic driver combinations rath er than individually operating forces. The five single driving forces are (decreasing in relevance) Economic factors, policy and institutional factors, technological factors, cultural factors, demographic factors (Geist and Lambin 2001). Here, the indirect factors are in the majority operating at the 5-factor term of causation, that is, all underlying factors together are argued to be driving deforestation in more than a third of all cases.In Lambin and Geist (2003), the two authors discuss regional differences in tropical deforestation in more detail. In fact, they argue that the processes of humid tropical deforestation in the three most important areas, namely Latin America, Southeast Asia and Africa, can vary to a great extent. Reasons for the regional differences are derived from three sets of factors the environmental and land-use history, the particular combination of causes triggering and driving land-use change, and the feedback structure, that is the social and ecological responses to land-cover changes (p.24). Though, Rudel (2006) distinguishes more precisely the most important tropical forest areas (Central America the Caribbean, South America, West Africa, Central Africa, eastbound Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia) and depicts a detailed image of the relevant agents of deforestation (road builders, corporate loggers, forest managers, reserve advocates, urban enterprises and consumers). He argues that while the size of the forest area decreases, the agents of change adjust their behaviour and act differently in respect to the actual forest size. The authors main conclusions can be shortly summarized as follows. As forests decline in size roads are ceased to be built, corporate enterprises stop exploiting the forests, community forest management becomes more effective, protected forest areas become less applicable for conservation measures, and degraded sites are reforested by urban consumers (Rudel 2006). Thus, the causes for deforestation and land use change are not electrostatic and since all factors are interdependent it is difficult to assess causes in a biome wide or global perspective.However, the quite general conclusions that are drawn by Geist and Lambin for the three major tropical forest areas (Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa) must be viewed cautiously. For instance, an extensive and diverse area such as central and western Africa is reviewed by means of only 19 case studies from eight countries. The results then are treated non-exclusive, are thus assumed to be comparable (although being vicenary as well as qualitative) and are used for drawing representative conclusions on the entire tropical Africa (Geist and Lambin 2001). Furthermore, the definition of deforestation that is used by the authors must be viewed critically since they use a broad and inclusive (Geist and Lambin 2001, p.17) definition which considers not only forest conversion () but also different types of forest degradation (p. 17). Nevertheless, Geist and Lambin (2001, 2002, 2003) provide a good overview of the existing causes for deforestation in the tropics and relate underlying and direct causes (as well as accompanying occurrences) before they conclude with a quantification of the causative linkages. Also, they discuss the strengths and weaknesses of their chosen methodology and address potential biases and ambiguities to the reader adequately (2001, p. 17 ff).Also, it is important to stress the importance of roads or access in general to (remote) forest areas, which is a prerequisite for large scale anthropogenic interferences. This is confessedly not only in the tropical forest biome but also in the temperate forest biome. In many logistic regression models for the assessment of deforestation patterns, the distance to roads is a major factor and closely related to deforestation processes (Mertens and Lambin 1997 Altamirano and Lara 2010 Echeverria et al. 2008 Wilson et al. 2005 among others).Althou gh agricultural expansion is mentioned to be the most significant cause for deforestation, it should be mentioned that the intensification of agricultural practices, however, can have a positive effect on remaining forests since productivity increases and the pressure of expansion thus is reduced (cf. Barbier 2001). As the global human population and the demand for pabulum and agricultural products increase, the importance of agriculture must not be neglected and should be incorporated into policy responses.In his book Logjam Deforestation and the Crisis of Global Governance, David Humphreys (2006) shortly describes the European deforestation process from an institutional economics perspective. He argues that, in contrast to Garret Hardins theory of the tragedy of the commons, common property regimes are of import for the conservation of forest public goods (such as watershed defense or climate regulation) as long as land tenure rights and legal self-possession are secured. Lik ewise, Elinor Ostrom (2002) argues similarly in her essay Reformulating the earthys and identifies several requisite attributes for the resource system and the appropriators in order for efficient self-governing associations to form. The most important attributes mentioned are the spatial extent of the resource system, the salience or dependence of the appropriators on the resource for a major portion of their livelihood, trust and reciprocity and autonomy, among others (Ostrom 2002, p. 5). Common property regimes can be defined as institutional arrangements for the cooperative (shared, joined, collective) use, management, and sometimes ownership of natural resources. (McKean 2000 in Humphreys 2006, p. 4). Humphreys (2006) states that in Europe the common use of forests under public ownership was widely respected until the Middle ages when the aristocracy and political elites organized the systematic and widespread displacement of commoners from common land, and the subsequent bor der of this land by fencing (p. 6), thus, changing the property regime from public to private. Then, with the rise of the centralized state during the 16th to 18th century, forests were further enclosed and employ with timber as a steady revenue source. In central Europe soon only few species were considered economically profitable. By conserving only economically valuable species, this instrumental, utilitarian and abstractionist logic eroded biodiversity in the forest and promoted the development of scientific forestry (Humphreys 2006, p. 6). This socioeconomic development, an increasing demand for timber and fuel wood and a steadily growing population promoted the exploitation of temperate forests across Europe and lead to the degradation of the forest public goods which were considered unproductive in economic terms. The practices of enclosure and scientific forestry were later also brought to the European colonies in Africa, Asia, Australia and the Americas (Humphreys 2006) w here currently remaining pristine tropical forests are experiencing a similar trend. To sum up this paragraph, again I use the words of David Humphreys since they convincingly make a point and cannot be formulated better. Enclosure during the medieval and colonial eras degraded and sunk forest commons across the world. Forest degradation in the 20th and 21st centuries has rarely been due to poorly functioning common property regimes. It is eer the result of the enclosure of commons by state and private interests, who overexploit the forests for economic gain and who have a totally different parityship to the forest than the commoners whom they displaced. (p. 7).5 Spatial change patternsOnly as recent as the last 150 years have tropical forests go through a drastic human induced change in terms of forest cover and species composition in contrast to many temperate forest ecosystems which have experienced severe and large scale changes for much longer. While vast areas of tropical forest were still without anthropogenic pressure, temperate forest landscapes (in Europe i.e.) were, in relation to available land area, highly populated and forest ecosystems largely impacted and altered (Potapov et al. 2009). Today, it is estimated that over one half of the temperate forest biome has been fragmented or removed by humans, in comparison to nearly one quarter of the tropical forest biome (Wade et al. 2008)Tropical forests have recently experienced a changeless loss of forest area. Achard et al. (2002) estimated a loss of tropical forest of 0.52 % for the period 1990-1997 and Hansen et al. (2008) estimated that 1.39 % of the total tropical forest area were lost between 2000 and 2005. Temperate forests, however, recently experience neither large net gains nor losses in forest area and some areas even show an increase in forest cover (FRA 2010).For the tropics, six general spatial patterns of the forest/non-forest interface were developed by Husson et al. (1995) which were used for example in Mertens and Lambin (1997) or Geist and Lambin 2001. The six types of patterns are geometric, corridor, fishbone, diffuse, patchy, and island. Geometric patterns are related to large-scale clearings for modern sector activities, corridor patterns to roadside colonization by spontaneous migrants, fishbone patterns to planned resettlement schemes (yet limited to the Brazilian Amazon), diffuse patterns to smallholder or traditionalistic subsistence agriculture, patchy patterns to high population density areas with residual forest patches, and island patterns to (peripheral) urban areas (Geist and Lambin 2001, p.66). Such spatial patterns are easily detectable once the deforestation process occurs quickly and when the connectedness of the forest area was large hitherto. These characteristics are more likely to be found in the tropical moist broadleaved forest type (especially in South America and Africa (Wade et al. 2003)) and thus the spatial models depicted he re are more adequate to be used in the tropical forest biome. citation Geist and Lambin (2001), p. 66For the temperate forest biome (here Europe) Estreguil and Mouton (2009, p. 6) present four different and typical patterns of forest loss. Drawing on publications by Forman (1995) and Bogaert et al. (2004) they characterize local spatial forest loss by a) attrition (the disappearance of patches), b) shrinkage (decrease of the size of remaining patches), c) perforation (cleared holes within forest patches), and d) fragmentation (braking up of forest areas).Source Estreguil and Mouton (2009), p. 76 Consequences of deforestationThe consequences of deforestation can cause local scale and far reaching ecological feedback mechanisms such as atmospheric, hydrological and climatic changes (Goldammer 1992) and can furthermore have implications on the socio-economic environment. This, in turn, affects the whole forest ecosystem at large scale and in the long run.Regarding the current debate on a changing global climate, forests are of major concern since they serve as a great sink for atmospheric carbon. The wooden and photoactive biomass as well as forest soils sequester large amounts of atmospheric carbon. In comparison, forests store and sequester more carbon than any other terrestrial ecosystem (Gibbs et al 2007). A great amount of the total human induced global carbon emissions is argued to be released from forest degradation and deforestation a great amount in tropical regions since here deforestation rates are currently most striking. Calculations that not even include tropical forest fires estimate the amount of carbon released at 10-25% of the total human induced carbon emissions (Santilli et al. 2005 Houghton 2003). The proportion of carbon released by forests fires and burning of biomass is still difficult to determine but is practically responsible for(p) for great amounts of carbon and other harmful substances released into the atmosphere (Goldammer 1992 Ho ughton 2003). While tropical deforestation processes are estimated to significantly add to global carbon emissions and act as a source, temperate forests of the northern hemisphere are considered a carbon sink (Heath et al. 1993 in Potapov 2009 Goodale et al. 2002 in Houghton 2003).7 Forest rehabilitationAt any level of degradation, forest conditions can be improved and the process of degradation halted or even reversed. Essential for the rehabilitation of degraded forests are silvicultural or protection measures on degraded forest land or reforestation measures on non-forest land. These rehabilitation measures must be adapted to the specific ecological conditions of each individual area. If successful, those measures might eventually lead to a level of non-degraded forest (FAO 2009). In general, tropical forest rehabilitation is more complicated and requires more efforts than in temperate forests.From an institutional perspective, the implementation of rehabilitation or conservatio n measures by corporate enterprises is seldom achieved on a voluntary basis because (tropical) forests are mostly characterized by open access conditions and forest ecosystem services are public goods. Only if secure property rights are allocated, monitored and enforced and incentives for action are being provided are such measures more likely to be realized. Moreover, forest degradation and deforestation can be argued to be negative externalities that are often neglected by forestry or agricultural enterprises or even small-scale users. David Humphreys (2006) puts it as follows While corporations are effective in supplying private goods, their efficacy in public good provision is highly questionable. Corporations have one overwhelming responsibility, namely to maximize shareholder value. This is a fiduciary responsibility in private law of nature in most countries (and) rationalizes both the internalization of monetary benefits and the systematic externalization of social and env ironmental costs. (p. 11). For those ecologically negative externalities to be considered during decision making processes adequate policies and governance structures are required. In our current capitalist system of neoliberal economic policies, an ecologically and socially sustainable economy will be very difficult to achieve, if not impossible.8 ConclusionThe scientific progress towards an understanding of ecological forest processes and deforestation patterns has recently fueled the debate on the true value of intact forest ecosystems. With the recent tendency of accelerated anthropogenic forest conversion into other land uses, the impacts of considerable small-scale disturbances along with large-scale conversions accumulate to such an extent that they become measurable on a regional and even global level.Although forest ecosystems are of central importance regarding the economic development especially in humid tropical countries, Hansen et al. (2008) argue that forest governanc e is still impaired by a lack of timely selective information on forest cover change. They conclude that a mixed strategy for monitoring should include data at multiple temporal and spatial resolutions (p. 9443) providing a feasible and cost-effective methodology to produce timely, precise, and internally consistent estimates of biome-wide forest clearing (p. 9443) (Hansen et al. 2008). However, global governance on forest ecosystems is currently not sufficiently developed. A biome-wide assessment of the forest development must therefore be viewed critically. Rather, a decentralized assessment of the causes and processes of deforestation should be aimed at to find get political answers to halt deforestation and promote a socially and environmentally sustainable forest management.Goldammer (1992) points out that a reliable assessment of tropical forest development requires detailed knowledge of interacting ecological processes, namely the consideration and connection of small-scale impacts with large-scale feedback mechanisms. Thus, not underestimating the social importance forests play, a comprehensive understanding of deforestation processes and patterns requires an interdisciplinary approach from an ecosystem perspective that considers ecological, economic and social sciences.Word count 4558 (list of references excluded)

Cultural Differences and Switching of In-Group Sharing

Cultural Differences and Switching of In-Group manductionNuchelle Atkinson, M.A.Research Article CritiqueQiu, L., Lin, H., Leung, A. K. (2013).Cultural Differences and Switching of In-Group SharingBehavior between an American (Facebook) and a Chinese (Renren)Social Ne some(prenominal)rking Site. Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(1), 106-121.Emma J. BarnesAbstractCulture is often mirrored by or perceived by dint of sh bed make outs in a community. The opposite shared practice on users national culture re prefaces their host cultures. Facebook is the main loving network site (SNS) in Singapore, thus, the partakers was considered bicultural online users, because of the widespread experiences to two cultur all(prenominal)y different online environments. The authors studied cultural differences and fashional switching in the context of the fast emerging, naturally occurring online social networking, using some(prenominal) self-report measures and content analyses of online activitie s on two highly popular platforms Facebook and Renren (the Facebook of China). Further more(prenominal), the reading considered indications of the extent to which characteristics described perceived cultures. These results set the stage for further investigations on tractile switching of actual sharing behaviors. The results also provided the basis that users behavioral differences in online sharing are due to their culturally shared practice as remote to differences in technical capabilities.Purpose The purpose of the theme is to achieve two objectives to seek to identify cross-cultural differences between technologically similar SNS platforms Facebook and Renren (the Facebook of China). Second, to turn out cultural frame switching in online environments. The work also seek to establish that Renren and Facebook are two technically similar platforms in terms of musical arrangement performance, security, and user-friendliness of in-group sharing functions. This would eliminat e the possibility that behavioral differences in the two online communities are attri aloneable to technical differences between the two platforms.Methodology . The ask was conducted using a 5-Point Likert-type scale event on the News Feed page of the participants accounts. Participants completed a set of questionnaires on perceived characteristics and various technical capabilities of Facebook and Renren. We created a cartoon to examine the perceived cultures of Facebook and Renren using characteristics that are cerebrate to either a collectivistic or an individualistic orientation in the context of online social networking. We utilise the scale developed by Tuunainen, Pitkanen,and Hovi (2009) to assess user perception of information security on Facebook and Renren. Website Analysis and Measurement Inventory (WAMMI). WAMMI (www.wammi. com) is a measurewide used in industry for assessing the overall system performanceResults The present article fills this gap by studying the pr actice of in-group sharing, a highly jet online behavior afforded by many SNSs. Our findings demonstrated for the first clock that users with extensive experiences with two culturally distinctive SNS communities can flexibility switch their online behaviors to match the shared practice on those SNSs.Conclusions first, our studies demonstrate that SNSs are interesting cultural environments on their own. our research suggests that SNS users can actively participate in multiple online cultures and acquire multicultural experiences through social interactions in the virtual world.Culture is often mirrored by or perceived through shared practices in a community. The different shared practice on users national culture represents their host cultures. Online culture has been considered as a knowledge system formed by constellations of shared practices, expectations, and structures that members bring to follow with the help of networked computer technology (Fuchs, 2008). However, little w ork has been approached from a cultural psychological perspective there is a need to examine the way out of online culture. Studying different online cultures will expand the possibility of cultural psychology by providing refreshful evidence to support existing cultural theories or contest established ones. Thus, it becomes increasingly important to understand the behavioral ramifications of exposure to multiple online cultures.The problem and statement of importance is clearly stated. The purpose of the study is to achieve two objectives to seek to identify cross-cultural differences between technologically similar SNS platforms Facebook and Renren (the Facebook of China) and to demonstrate cultural frame switching in online environments. The study also sought to establish that Renren and Facebook are two technically similar platforms in terms of system performance, security, and user-friendliness of in-group sharing functions. The authors hypothesized that Renren (vs. Facebook ) culture is relatively more collectivistic, whereas Facebook (vs. Renren) culture is relatively more individualistic. The second hypothesis is that Renren and Facebook differ in their cultural orientations, with Renren being more collectivistic and Facebook being more individualistic. The authors hypothesize that in-group sharing is a shared practice more prevalent on Renren than on Facebook. All key terms are well defined.The literature review is very comprehensive in that it covers all of the mechanisms associated with the current study. The authors identify different forms and interpretations of this study. The review concludes with a brief summary of relevant literature and the reasoning for this study. The author intent of the study was explained with lyric poem that echo higher order thinking skills. The participants are mentioned, the setting of the study is explained and words are well chosen free of jargon and no unnecessary words are used.Thus the purpose was clearly st ated. The hypothesis was provided in the literature review and logical. The justification of why the study is important was stated and convincing. It explained the purpose of the study and provided a compelling foundation, enabling the work to be set in the context of both existing evidence and its practical applications. All of the references are minded(p) to the problem and help to inform the reader of the studys purpose.The author used a systematic methodology involving the construction of theory through the analysis of data. The study was conducted using a scale developed by Tuunainen, Pitkanen and Hovi (2009), Website Analysis and Measurement Inventory (WAMMI), and a 5-Point Likert-type scale event. Participants completed a set of questionnaires on perceived characteristics and various technical capabilities of Facebook and Renren. The authors created a survey to examine the perceived cultures of Facebook and Renren using characteristics that are related to either a collectiv istic or an individualistic orientation in the context of online social networking.This was an original study as the authors seek to step further in examining if similar cultural switching behavior would occur in natural online environments.Previous research has shown that attributes such as sharing-oriented (Berry et al., 1997 Triandis, 1995), conformity-oriented (Bond Smith, 1996), hierarchical (Triandis, 1995), and supportive (Miller, 1997) pertain to collectivistic cultural characteristics, and attributes such as self-expressive (Kim Sherman, 2007), assertive (Church Lonner, 1998), classless (Triandis, 1995), and competitive (Triandis, 1993) pertain to individualistic cultural characteristics.What are the variables?Participants completed a set of questionnaires in Chinese, the participants native language. In this study, the authors counterbalanced the order of questionnaires that asked about Facebook and Renren.The present article fills this gap by studying the practice of in-group sharing, a highly common online behavior afforded by many SNSs. The study demonstrated for the first time that users with extensive experiences with two culturally distinctive SNS communities can flexibility switch their online behaviors to match the shared practice on those SNSs. With online social networks becoming a highly viable research tool, the current research offers an display case of utilizing online data to study an emerging sociocultural phenomenon.Study 1 confirmed that system performance, security, and the usability of sharing functions are similar across Facebook and Renren, the two SNSs differ in their language medium. Facebooks user interface is in English, whereas Renrens is in Chinese (although users can give nonice (of) in Chinese on Facebook and English on Renren). From the authors viewpoint, language is part of the cultural systems on SNSs. Indeed, considerable evidence suggests that language bring to passs a part of the larger culture such that th e use of Chinese can initiate the Chinese cultural system and the use of English can activate the Western cultural system (as sited in Bond, 1983 Trafimow, Silverman, Fan, Law, 1997). Thus, it is reasonable not to consider the effect of language as a rival explanation of the current finding, but to view language as an important element of the online culture in which the users are participating.Anformer(a) alternative account concerns how different degrees of closeness of friendship on the two SNSs might have affected individuals sharing behaviors. Our participants joined the Renren community when they were in China, and later became Facebook users after they arrived in Singapore. One might argue that these friends online activities constitute only a small sample of activities that may not accurately represent what other users generally do and therefore the shared practices of the SNS cultures. We contend that, however, it is the practices and activities nominally engaged by their friends that are most likely to reflect the immediate cultural environment in which the participants are actively involved.Conclusions and Implications (2-3 paragraphs)3 pointsAre the remainders of the study related to theoriginal purpose?The present article fills this gap by studying the practice of in-group sharing, a highly common online behavior afforded by many SNSs. The study demonstrated for the first time that users with extensive experiences with two culturally distinctive SNS communities can flexibility switch their online behaviors to match the shared practice on those SNSs. With online social networks becoming a highly viable research tool, the current research offers an example of utilizing online data to study an emerging sociocultural phenomenon.We highly encourage other researchers to capitalize on this valuable resource and studythe cultural dynamics of their own interest. The conclusion of the present study is related to the original purpose. The purpose of the st udy is to achieve two objectives to seek to identify cross-cultural differences between technologically similar SNS platforms Facebook and Renren (the Facebook of China). Second, to demonstrate cultural frame switching in online environments. The study also sought to establish that Renren and Facebook are two technically similar platforms in terms of system performance, security, and user-friendliness of in-group sharing functions.Were the implications discussed?The current findings have important implications, both theoretically and methodologically. Interms of theoretical significance, first, our studies demonstrate that SNSs are interesting cultural environments on their own. Their technological capabilities enable them to afford new norms and practices that are not previously observed offline. For example, instant in-group sharing of information such as videos and pictures can be easily done online but not offline. Nevertheless,the use of new media may not alter the fundamental essence of a culturethe newly emergednorms and practices online may evolve from and later reinforce the shared norms and imperatives prevalent in the culture where the online community is hosted. Thus, SNS practices could be important manifestations of cultural products that contribute to a sense of cultural consensus (Lamoreaux Morling, in press). Second, our research suggests that SNS users can actively participate in multiple online cultures and acquire multicultural experiences through social interactions in the virtual world.Whom the results and conclusions will effect?With millions of people engaging in online communitiesWhat recommendations were make at the conclusion?SNS communities can flexibility switch their online behaviors to match the shared practice With online social networks becoming a highly viable research tool, the current research offers an example of utilizing online data to study an emerging sociocultural phenomenon. We highly encourage other researchers to c apitalize on this valuable resource and studythe cultural dynamics of their own interest.

Of Mice And Men :: essays research papers

"A guy goes nuts if he aint got nobody. Dont matter no residuum who the guy is, longs hes with you. I tell ya a guy gets too lonely an he gets sick." A major depicted object in Steinbecks novella Of Mice and Men is loneliness. The characters Crooks, Candy and Curleys wife each suffer from this although the severity of their seclusion varied. The hoar swapper, Candy was victimized by isolation as a result of two main factors, one being his disability and the other being his age. For example, through break through the book we find the farmhands out bucking the barley while Candy is left behind to sweep and clean the ranch. He lost his hand after getting it caught in a get together of machinery and as a result he is forced to stay behind. This being one of the major factors that leads to his loneliness. Furthermore, Candys age adds to his feeling of uselessness. Because he thinks that he is old he puts himself in a state of mind that handicaps him more than his missing hand ever will. He looks down on himself as an old worthless man thats wasting away his last few years. Not only is it the way that others think of him but also the way he thinks of himself that forces him to find solitude. The most evident case of loneliness is Curleys wife. No matter how hard she tried she couldnt fit in. For example, when she tried numerous times to talk to George and Lenny she was either ignored or told to leave. Because of her reputation for being a flirt none of the farmhands wanted to talk to her. It was the threat of getting in pain in the ass with Curley that caused many workers to avoid her. In addition, because of Curleys insecure feelings he neglected her and forced her to seek attention anyway she could, even it meant flirting. She was ignored by twain the farmhands and her own husband and because of this she was being forced into loneliness, the one thing she fought so hard against. Crooks is a black man that experiences isolation in terms of racism. For example, he is forced to live alone in the barn. Because the setting of this book takes place during the 1930s discrimination sadly still existed. The farmhands feel that since he is black he isnt worthy of living with the rest of them.

Humanism and Clericism Of The 16th Century :: Philosophy

Humilitary personnelism and Clericism Of The 16th CenturyThe two paintings, The conversion of St. Paul by Caravaggio, and lady write a letter with her maid by Vermeer, reflect the religious conflict between the Protestant and catholic cultures of 16th century Europe.Before we take a look at why they reflect the religious dispute, first we must know some background on what caused it. Humanism and Clericism. During the renaissance humanism stood for the gifted attitudes of the ancient world paired with the wide acceptance of the existence of God. Humanists were interested in aesthetics, saw the usefulness of historic knowledge, and were convinced that mans main duty in life, was to enjoy his life soberly and to be active in his community. It was believed that those who studied the past would be able to lead better, more responsible lives. On the contrary, in that location is something called Clericism, where people believed G-d reigned supreme to all and that humanism remained usele ss because the mer man was worth so little. The statue of David best describes the ongoing influence of Protestant and catholic controversy on the visual arts. Michaelangelo uses David, a character from the Old Testament as his subject matter. The story goes that David, a mer man throws a stone with a slingshot at the mighty giant Goliath and kills him. (Your basic good vs. Evil.) Michaelangelo uses Clericism in this piece by incorporating a story from the bible, and on the other hand also incorporates his humanism influence into the work of art by placing himself as the character David Giving us the impression that even the mer man can overcome his problems with knowledge of how to get the best them, instead of continually relying on the almighty to solve your problems for you. David shows the 2 conflicting views in a magnificent statue form. Another Magnificent piece of artwork is Leonardos sketch of a man within a circle. Vitruvius adding a quote to the piece later on, man in h is perfect proportions, is the center of all things, suggests that this piece was influenced by humanism. We say this because the piece portrays a mere man as the center instead of what the catholics may haved placed, that which god would be in the center of the circle. Catholics, Priests, and church officials same would not approve of this irrational idea and the sketch itself. A christian priest & scholar, Martin Luther, was a man of thought, as well as a man of action.

Gay Marriage Should Be Legal Essay -- Same-Sex Marriage Essays

As gentlemany minority groups in the United States have fought for their civil rights in past decades, it is the gay community that right away finds itself striving for equal opportunities in our cultur each(prenominal)y diverse nation. Although they have already come a long way in the path of acceptance, most lately the gay community has had to confront extremist conservative groups who claim that allowing same-sex couples to join in a civilly recognized union violates the act of a traditional, sacrosanct marriage. Gay and lesbian individuals feel that, like any other group, they should not be denied rights that are typically bestowed upon straightaway couples who are recognized by the federal government. Certainly, there are states that have drafted and created protections for same-sex couples under civil unions and domestic partnership laws, however, the formation of such ordinances creates a separate and unequal status for some of Americas citizens. As the precedent set by Brown V. The Board of Education exhibited in 1955, which pleaded a case for racial equality, the same theory of creating a separate scarce equal environment for groups of any nature has been proven to be unconstitutional. On June 26, 2015, the US Supreme Court ruled that the US Constitution guarantees the right for same-sex couples to marry. nearly Americans opposing the Supreme Court ruling allowing same-sex marriages belong to conservative, religious, or Republican groups. These opponents of homosexual equality fear that the allowance of same-sex marriages will lessen the validity of heterosexual marriages and make a mockery of the tradition that brings two loving souls together. Many argue that marriage is a sacred union between a man and a woman established for ... ...ago those laws were overturned in 1967 and are now seen as absurd and discriminatory. Obviously, legalizing gay marriage in the United States will modify the lives of same-sex couples and provide them with marriage benefits ranging from countless legal protections to rights allowing them to adopt, raise and share custody of children. Yes, civil unions and domestic partnership laws are leading the gay community in a positive direction as these laws are beneficiary to gay and lesbian couples. However, these protections are simply not representative of the American ideal that all men are created equal. DOMA restricts the recognition of gay and lesbian marriages or unions on a state-to-state level. If as citizens we truly are equal, then why arent heterosexual marriages that recognized by the states that issue their marriage certificates?